Masking our emotions: Emotion recognition and perceived intensity differ by race and use of medical masks.

Although medical masks have played a key role in decreasing the transmission of communicable disease, they simultaneously reduce the availability of nonverbal cues fundamental to social interaction. In the present study, we determined the collective impact of medical masks on emotional expression recognition and perceived intensity as a function of actor race. Participants completed an emotional expression recognition task involving stimuli with or without medical masks. Across six basic emotional facial expressions, medical masks were associated with significantly more emotional expression recognition errors. Overall, the effects associated with race varied depending on the emotion and appearance of masks. Whereas recognition accuracy was higher for White relative to Black actors for anger and sadness, the opposite pattern was observed for disgust. Medical mask-wearing exacerbated actor-race related recognition differences for anger and surprise, but attenuated these differences for fear. Emotional expression intensity ratings were significantly reduced for all emotions except fear, where masks were associated with increased perceived intensity. Masks further increased already higher intensity ratings for anger in Black versus White actors. In contrast, masks eliminated the tendency to give higher intensity ratings for Black versus White sad and happy facial expressions. Overall, our results suggest that the interaction between actor race and mask wearing status with respect to emotional expression judgements is complex, varying by emotion in both direction and degree. We consider the implications of these results particularly in the context of emotionally charged social contexts, such as in conflict, healthcare, and policing.

Dual-role nurse interpreter perceptions of language barriers and Spanish-speaking patients: A qualitative study.

AIM: As the United States population is ever changing and is growing in diverse population patterns, the health care system is called to initiate responsive health care practices that are based on the public's changing and diverse cultural patterns. This study sought to explore the perceptions of certified medical interpreter dual-role nurses and their experiences with Spanish-speaking patients from admission to discharge in hospital stays. DESIGN: A qualitative descriptive case study was applied in this study. METHODS: Data was collected from nurses working at a United States Southwest Borderland hospital using purposive sampling and semi-structured in-depth interviews. A total of four dual-role nurses participated, and thematic narrative analysis was applied. RESULTS: Four major themes emerged. The main themes were "being a dual-role nurse interpreter," "patient experience," "culture and competence, "and "nursing and caring," With each major theme multiple sub themes emerged. Two sub themes emerged with "being a dual-role nurse interpreter," and two sub themes emerged with "patient experiences." The major themes that emerged from the interviews indicated that the language barrier greatly affects Spanish-speaking patients in their hospital stay. Participants reported having at least one encounter with a Spanish-speaking patient that was not afforded interpretation services or had interpretation from someone other than a qualified interpreter. Patients experienced confusion, apprehension and anger associated with not being able to communicate their needs to the healthcare system. CONCLUSIONS: According to the experiences of the certified dual-role nurse interpreters, having a language barrier makes a tremendous impact on the care of Spanish-speaking patients. Nurse participants describe how patients and their family members experience dissatisfaction, anger and confusion when there is a language barrier and most importantly how language barriers have detrimental effects on patients with wrong medication prescriptions and wrong diagnosis. CLINICAL RELEVANCE: When hospital administration recognize and support nurses as certified medical interpreters as a key component for patient care when assisting persons with limited English proficiency, patients are empowered to become active members of their healthcare regimen. The role of dual-role nurses enables brokering between the healthcare system and serves as a tool to bridge health disparities based on linguistic inequities existing in healthcare. Recruitment and retention of certified medical interpreter trained Spanish-speaking nurses deter errors in healthcare and makes a positive impact on the healthcare regimen of Spanish-speaking patients enabling patient empowerment through education and advocacy.

Validation of the Dimensions of Anger Reactions Scale (the DAR-5) in non-clinical South Korean adults.

BACKGROUND: Posttraumatic anger is a commonly reported emotion among people who have experienced traumatic events. The current study aimed to demonstrate the reliability and validity of the South Korean version of the DAR-5 (DAR-5-K). The DAR-5 is a single scale with 5 items which measures posttraumatic anger. The DAR-5 is composed of five items that measure anger frequency, intensity, duration, aggression, and its interference with social relations. METHODS: Data were collected from 814 South Korean adults who had experienced traumatic events and participated in the study and analyzed via the combination of exploratory factor analysis (n = 405) and confirmatory factor analysis (n = 409). RESULTS: Results supported the one-factor structure, as reported in previous validation studies. The scale demonstrated robust internal reliability and concurrent validity with measures of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms, depression, anxiety, and self-esteem. The DAR-5 cut-off score of 12 that was established in the original validation study successfully differentiated high from low scorers with regard to PTSD symptoms, depression, anxiety, and self-esteem. CONCLUSION: The results confirm that the DAR-5-K is a brief and psychometrically robust measure of anger that can be used to examine South Korean adults who have experienced traumatic events.

Anxious and Angry: Early Emotional Adaptation of Medical Students in a Situational Crisis on the Example of the COVID-19 Pandemic.

BACKGROUND: The COVID-19 pandemic is an example of a situational crisis resulting in emotional destabilization. The aim of the study was to analyze changes in the level of anxiety and anger in medical students during the early adaptation to the situational crisis, and to estimate the risk factors for fear and anger in this group. METHODS: Participants were 949 medical students (M = 22.88, SD = 4.10) in the first stage on March 2020, and 748 (M = 22.57, SD = 3.79) in the second stage on June 2020. The STAI, STAXI-2, and our own questionnaire were used. RESULTS: First vs the second stage: anxiety state (p < 0.001), anger state (p = 0.326), and feeling angry (p < 0.05). The regression model (F(14.1681) = 79.01, p < 0.001) for the level of anxiety state explains 39% of the dependent variable variance (r2 = 0.39). The model for the anger-state level (F(6.1689) = 68.04, p < 0.001)-19% (r2 = 0.19). CONCLUSIONS: During the early adaptation to the situational crisis, the general level of anxiety decreased, but anger was at the same level. The anxiety was explained by contact with potentially or objective infected persons, and the level of anger was based on the need for greater social support.

A Study on the Relationship between Internet Overdependence and Anger Response among Young Adults during COVID-19 Pandemic: Moderating Effect on Negative Emotions.

The aim of this study is to examine how Internet dependence affects anger responses during the COVID-19 pandemic. Owing to social distancing policies, Internet dependence has intensified, and the prevalence of anger has significantly increased. To understand this phenomenon and draw some implications, the "frustration-aggression hypothesis" was utilized for the theoretical framework and anger response was categorized into functional and dysfunctional anger responses. An analysis shows that overdependence on the Internet has a positive effect on the dysfunctional anger response. At the same time, other negative emotions replace anger, reducing the possibility of a dysfunctional anger response. Accordingly, a need for a constant effort to understand the circumstances of the young generation living in the "new normal" is emphasized; moreover, this paper suggests some theoretical and practical implications.

Effects of personal relative deprivation on the relationship between anger rumination and aggression during and after the COVID-19 pandemic lockdown: A longitudinal moderated network approach.

INTRODUCTION: Several studies have demonstrated a directional link between rage rumination and aggression. However, recent research suggests that this relationship is bidirectional. The current study examined the complex relationships between anger rumination and aggression using a moderated network approach in a longitudinal design while considering personal relative deprivation. METHOD: A total of 665 participants (59.25% female, agemean±SD = 19.01 ± 1.25) were enrolled at two-time points. Assessments included self-report measures of the Anger Rumination Scale, Buss-Perry Aggression Questionnaire, and Relative Deprivation Scale. A Moderated Network Model (MMN) was used to test the complex links among anger rumination, aggression, and personal relative deprivation. RESULTS: The analysis revealed that the link between anger rumination and aggression was complex and bidirectional. Notably, as the level of personal relative deprivation increased, verbal aggression had a positive conditional effect on anger afterthoughts in Wave 2, and thoughts of revenge had a positive conditional effect on verbal aggression in Wave 2. Moreover, as the first discovery, anger afterthoughts and anger had a negative conditional effect on each other across levels of personal relative deprivation in Wave 2. In addition, network comparison indicates that the MNMs structure was significantly different across timepoints, implying that anger rumination and aggression were inextricably linked in college students during isolation and that this complicated relationship was weakened after isolation. CONCLUSIONS: This study deepens our understanding of the bidirectional relationships between anger rumination and aggression and recognizes the moderating role of personal relative deprivation.

How Fear of External Threats Plays Roles: An Examination of Supervisors' Trait Anger, Abusive Supervision, Subordinate Burnout and CCB.

In times of uncertainty, such as during COVID-19, many organizations experience profit decline, and employees develop a fear of external threats, such as organizational layoffs. However, most of the literature focuses on how people's fear influences their well-being. Less is known about how employees' fear of external threats influences their workplace behaviors. The current study proposes that supervisors' fear of external threats stimulates those who are high in trait anger to behave in a more abusive way. Simultaneously, subordinates' fear of external threats would strengthen the positive relationship between abusive supervision and their burnout and compulsory citizenship behaviors (CCB), as fear of external threats constrains their response options to abusive supervision. We tested the hypotheses with a multiwave and multisource survey study (N = 322 dyads) in China, and the results showed that supervisors' fear of external threats strengthened the positive effect of trait anger on abusive supervision. Subordinates' fear of external threats strengthens the positive relationships of abusive supervision with CCB and the mediating effect of abusive supervision in the relationship of supervisors' trait anger with subordinates' CCB. Our study enriches people's understanding of how supervisors' and subordinates' fear of external threats may play roles in workplace behaviors.

Interplay between Discrete Emotions and Preventive Behavior in Health Crises: Big Data Analysis of COVID-19.

Understanding the interplay between discrete emotions and COVID-19 prevention behaviors will help healthcare professionals and providers to implement effective risk communication and effective risk decision making. This study analyzes data related to COVID-19 posted by the American public on Twitter and identifies three discrete negative emotions (anger, anxiety, and sadness) of the public from massive text data. Next, econometric analyses (i.e., the Granger causality test and impulse response functions) are performed to evaluate the interplay between discrete emotions and preventive behavior based on emotional time series and Google Shopping Trends time series, representing public preventive behavior. Based on the textual analysis of tweets from the United States, the following conclusions are drawn: Anger is a Granger cause of preventive behavior and has a slightly negative effect on the public's preventive behavior. Anxiety is a Granger cause of preventive behavior and has a positive effect on preventive behavior. Furthermore, preventive behavior is a Granger cause of anxiety and has a negative and lagging effect on anxiety. Exploring how discrete emotions, such as anger and anxiety, affect preventive behaviors will effectively demonstrate how discrete emotions play qualitatively different roles in promoting preventive behaviors. Moreover, understanding the impact of preventive behaviors on discrete emotions is useful for better risk communication.

Initial Stage of the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Perspective on Health Risk Communications in the Restaurant Industry.

Restaurant online review websites have made changes to adapt to customers' shifting needs during the COVID-19 crisis. Based on information behavior theory and social penetration theory, the present study investigated the changes in customers' emotions and how the volume of online reviews as an indication of sales is impacted by the instructional (i.e., with quantitative variables) and emotional (i.e., with qualitative variables) information on review websites. By comparing the same month (January-April) during 2017-2020, positive sentiment experienced a plunge, while negative sentiment showed an upsurge in April 2020. The volume of reviews was impacted by five quantitative variables (i.e., confirmed COVID-19 case number, food delivery option, takeout option, delivery fee, and delivery time) and seven qualitative variables (i.e., anticipation, fear, trust, anger, disgust, joy, and sadness). This study provides new insight into understanding information content on review websites during the crisis (e.g., pandemic) from the perspective of health risk communication.

Experiencing Stress During COVID-19: A Computational Analysis of Stressors and Emotional Responses to Stress.

This study aims to unveil how COVID-19 affected the experience of stress by focusing on the stressors. Using computational analysis based on a newly developed stressor identification model, we compared the experience of stress expressed by Korean Twitter users before and during the pandemic in terms of (1) the stressors as the source of stress and (2) emotion as the manifestation of stress. Both tweet-level (N = 202,556) and user-level (N = 24,803) analyses revealed that social factors are prevalent sources of stress both before and during the pandemic. Moreover, social stressors increased the most during the pandemic. While stress from social stressors was manifested mainly as sadness before the pandemic, anger became the predominant emotional manifestation during the pandemic. Public health policies and educators should consider social stressors as the predominant source of stress during the pandemic and seek ways to prepare the public better for such threats.

Trends in negative emotions throughout the COVID-19 pandemic in the United States.

OBJECTIVES: This study aimed to identify trends in the prevalence of negative emotions in the United States throughout the COVID-19 pandemic between March 2020 and November 2021. STUDY DESIGN: This was a descriptive, repeated cross-sectional analysis of nationally representative survey data. METHODS: Data originated from Gallup's COVID-19 web survey, encompassing 156,684 observations. Prevalence estimates for self-reported prior-day experience of sadness, worry, stress, anger, loneliness, depression, and anxiety were computed, plotted using descriptive trend graphs, and compared with 2019 estimates from the Gallup World Poll. Differences between estimates were evaluated by inspecting confidence intervals. RESULTS: Stress and worry were the most commonly experienced negative emotions between March 2020 and November 2021; worry and anger were significantly more prevalent than prepandemic. The prevalence of sadness, worry, stress, and anger fluctuated considerably over time and declined steadily to prepandemic levels by mid-2021. Distinctive spikes in the prevalence of several negative emotions, especially sadness and anger, were observed following the murder of George Floyd. CONCLUSIONS: Several negative emotions exhibited excess prevalence during the pandemic, especially in spring/summer 2020. Despite recent reductions to prepandemic levels, continued monitoring is necessary to inform policies and interventions to promote population well-being.

Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), anger and mental health of school students in Syria after nine years of conflict: a large-scale school-based study.

BACKGROUND: The Syrian crisis has entered its ninth year with many being affected by the war. This is the largest-scale study that aims to evaluate the psychological profile of secondary school students in Syria. METHODS: This is a cross-sectional study in schools in Damascus, Syria. The surveys assessed working habits, smoking, war exposure, grades, socioeconomic status (SES), social support, health-related quality of life (HRQL), post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), problematic anger, and other parameters. RESULTS: This study included 1369 students of which 53% suffered from PTSD and 62% from problematic anger. Around 46% declared a fair or worse general health and 61% had moderate or severe mental health. Only 9.3% did not report exposure to any war-related variable. War exposure had an impact on PTSD, anger, and HRQL, but not on students' grades. Smoking, having consanguineous parents, and working did not have a clear association with grades or anger. Social support weakly reduced PTSD and anger scores. Interestingly, working was associatedwith lowerPTSD scores but was associated with a worse physical component of HRQL. CONCLUSION: This is the largest study on school students in Syria that reports the psychological ramifications of war. Although the direct effects of war could not be precisely described, the high burden of PTSD and anger distress was a strong reflection of the chronic mental distress.

The Healthy Disruption of Anger.

During the COVID-19 pandemic, information related to the virus changed so rapidly, and anxiety among healthcare workforce mounted exponentially. The reality of the situation was fluid; leadership had a challenging time communicating even short-term strategies. What evolved was a scared, tired, angry healthcare workforce. Association for Leadership Science in Nursing authors explore leaderships' opportunity to acknowledge, harness, and transform this anger into healthy disruption.

How Italy Tweeted about COVID-19: Detecting Reactions to the Pandemic from Social Media.

The COVID-19 pandemic required communities throughout the world to deal with unknown threats. Using Twitter data, this study aimed to detect reactions to the outbreak in Italy and to evaluate the relationship between measures derived from social media (SM) with both national epidemiological data and reports on the violations of the restrictions. The dynamics of time-series about tweets counts, emotions expressed, and themes discussed were evaluated using Italian posts regarding COVID-19 from 25 February to 4 May 2020. Considering 4,988,255 tweets, results highlight that emotions changed significantly over time with anger, disgust, fear, and sadness showing a downward trend, while joy, trust, anticipation, and surprise increased. The trend of emotions correlated significantly with national variation in confirmed cases and reports on the violations of restrictive measures. The study highlights the potential of using SM to assess emotional and behavioural reactions, delineating their possible contribution to the establishment of a decision management system during emergencies.

The Differential Consequences of Fear, Anger, and Depression in Response to COVID-19 in South Korea.

Studies on previous outbreaks of contagious diseases suggest that the impact of the emotions associated with an epidemic can be greater than that of the epidemic in terms of the number of people affected. This study explores the relationships between the three most commonly expressed emotional responses to the COVID-19 pandemic (fear, anger, and depression) and two outcome variables (compliance with the social-distancing policy and the stigmatization of those infected by COVID-19). A large online, public opinion survey was conducted in South Korea (n = 1000) between 4 and 11 June 2020, which was between the first and the second waves of COVID-19. A series of regression analyses suggest that the emotional response was accompanied by differential behavioral and perceptual consequences. Fear was consistently positively related to all indicators of compliance with social-distancing policies (the voluntary practice of social distancing, support for the "routine-life-distancing" policy, and support for stronger social-distancing policies). Anger was positively related to both stigmatization indicators (responsibility attribution and stigmatizing attitude toward people infected with COVID-19). Finally, depression showed negative relationships with support for the "routine-life-distancing" policy and for stronger social-distancing policies but a positive relationship with the voluntary practice of social distancing. By examining whether and how certain types of emotional responses are more or less related to compliance with social distancing and stigmatization, the present study provides practical implications for effective public communication during an epidemic such as COVID-19.

Correlation between Positive Orientation and Control of Anger, Anxiety and Depression in Nursing Students in Poland, Spain and Slovakia during the COVID-19 Pandemic.

(1) This study analysed the relationship between positive orientation and subjective control of anger, anxiety and depression in nursing students in Poland, Spain and Slovakia during the pandemic. (2) The survey was carried out by the diagnostic survey method in a group of 756 nursing students in Poland, Spain and Slovakia. The empirical data were gathered using an original survey questionnaire, the Positive Orientation Scale and the Courtauld Emotional Control Scale. (3) It was shown that the positive orientation level in Polish students was significantly lower than in students in Spain (p < 0.0001) and Slovakia (p < 0.0001). Low results for positive orientation were obtained in nearly half (47.18%) of the respondents in the Polish sample, whereas it was 34.18% and 31.18% in the Spanish and Slovak samples, respectively (p < 0.0001). A positive orientation was the most important predictor of emotional control among the nursing students at all the sites (p < 0.0001). (4) Positive orientation has been shown to have a significant impact on emotional control in nursing students during the pandemic. Therefore, it is important to carefully monitor students' mental health during the pandemic to determine the demand for psychological and emotional support.

Online improvisation training, hybrid improvisation training and on-site improvisation training; are they the same?

BACKGROUND: Since the outbreak of COVID-19 in Wuhan in December 2019, lifestyle has been changing to an online-based learning and working environment rather than on-site, and improvisation training is no exception. However, no research compares the efficacy of online versus on-site training. Although we believed that the most effective way to learn improvisation is an on-site format, it is important to explore how format differences can affect learners. METHOD: We offer three types of training such as on-site training (n = 6) (Consisting of 1 female with age ≥40 and <50, and 5 males with ages ≥20 and <50), hybrid training (Instructor participates from online and learners participate on-site) (n = 120) (Consisting of 55 female with age ≥15 and <20, and 65 males with ages ≥15 and <50), and online training (n = 20) (Consisting of 4 female with age ≥20 and <30, and 16 males with ages ≥20 and <50) We collected pretest, test, and posttest data by using the Kansei Analyzer, a simplified electroencephalograph (EEG) and Profile of Mood States (POMS) questionnaire. RESULTS: All formats of training displayed an increase in vigor and a decrease in depression, confusion, tension, anger, and fatigue. The online training displayed better results than the on-site training. Regardless of the format, all training displayed an increase in stress during the activities and a decrease in stress after the activity without changes in other indexes. Additionally, on-site training displayed an increase in sleepiness and stress during the activities. Some participants were tested twice but no significant differences were found between the initial results and the secondary results. CONCLUSION: In this study, we found evidence that online improvisation can lead to the prevention of depressive symptoms and can function as a method for the reduction of stress in conjunction with the increase of individual vigor. However, a future study is required due to the low number of participants and the absence of POMS data for the on-site training. Any future studies should account for these factors while examining other data such as blood pressure, blood sugar, and pulse.

Face masks have emotion-dependent dissociable effects on accuracy and confidence in identifying facial expressions of emotion.

The coronavirus pandemic has resulted in increased use of face masks worldwide. Here, we examined the effect of wearing a face mask on the ability to recognise facial expressions of emotion. In a within-subjects design, 100 UK-based undergraduate students were shown facial expressions of anger, disgust, fear, happiness, sadness, and neutral expression; these were either posed with or without a face mask, or with a face mask artificially imposed onto them. Participants identified the emotion portrayed in the photographs from a fixed choice array of answers and rated their confidence in their selection. While overall accuracy was higher without than with masks, the effect varied across emotions, with a clear advantage without masks in disgust, happiness, and sadness; no effect for neutral, and lower accuracy without masks for anger and fear. In contrast, confidence was generally higher without masks, with the effect clear for all emotions other than anger. These results confirm that emotion recognition is affected by face mask wearing, but reveal that the effect depends on the emotion being displayed-with this emotion-dependence not reflected in subjects' confidence. The disparity between the effects of mask wearing on different emotions and the failure of this to be reflected in confidence ratings suggests that mask wearing not only effects emotion recognition, but may also create biases in the perception of facial expressions of emotion of which perceivers are unaware. In addition, the similarity of results between the Imposed Mask and Posed Mask conditions suggests that prior research using artificially imposed masks has not been deleteriously affected by the use of this manipulation.

To shoot or not to shoot: experiments on moral injury in the context of West Bank checkpoints and COVID-19 restrictions enforcement.

Background: Does exposure to events that transgress accepted norms, such as killing innocent civilians, prompt the psychological and emotional consequences of moral injury among soldiers? Moral injury is associated with negative emotions such as guilt, shame and anger, and a sense of betrayal and is identified among veterans following exposure to potentially morally injurious events (PMIE). Objective: We experimentally investigate how PMIE characteristics affect the intensity of MI and related negative moral emotions in participants with varied military experience. Method: We conducted three controlled, randomized experiments. Each exposed male respondents with active combat experience (Study 1) and varied military experience (Study 2) to four textual vignettes describing PMIE (child/adult and innocent/non-innocent suspect) that transpire at an Israeli checkpoint in the West Bank. In study 3, we exposed participants to two scenarios, where descriptions of police officers enforcing COVID 19 restrictions confronted lockdown violators. Results: Participants assigned to vignettes describing killing an innocent civilian exhibited more intense levels of shame and guilt than those assigned to vignettes describing killing a person carrying a bomb. Religiosity and political ideology were strong predictors of guilt and shame in response to descriptions of checkpoint shootings. These effects disappeared in Study 3, suggesting that political ideology drives MI in intergroup conflict. Conclusions: Background and PMIE-related characteristics affect the development of moral injury. Additionally, lab experiments demonstrate the potential and limitations of controlled studies of moral injury and facilitate an understanding of the aetiology of moral injury in a way unavailable to clinicians. Finally, experimental findings and methodologies offer further insights into the genesis of moral injury and avenues for therapy and prophylaxis.

Antecedentes: ¿La exposición a eventos que transgreden las normas aceptadas, como matar a civiles inocentes, provocan las consecuencias psicológicas y emocionales del daño moral entre los soldados? El daño moral (DM) se asocia con emociones negativas como la culpa, la vergüenza y la ira, y un sentido de traición y es identificado entre los veteranos después de la exposición a eventos potencialmente dañinos moralmente (EPDM).Objetivo: Investigamos experimentalmente cómo las características de EPDM afectan la intensidad del DM y emociones moralmente negativas relacionadas en participantes con vasta experiencia militar.Método: Realizamos tres experimentos controlados y aleatorizados. Cada varón expuesto respondió con experiencia en combate activo (Estudio 1) y vasta experiencia militar (Estudio 2) a cuatro viñetas textuales que describen EPDM (niño/adulto y sospechoso inocente/no inocente) que suceden en un puesto de control israelí en Cisjordania. En el estudio 3, expusimos a los participantes a dos escenarios, donde las descripciones de los agentes de policía que aplicaban las restricciones de COVID-19 enfrentaron a los infractores del confinamiento.Resultados: Los participantes asignados a viñetas que describen el asesinato de un civil inocente exhibieron niveles más intensos de vergüenza y culpa que los asignados a las viñetas que describen el asesinato de una persona llevando una bomba. La religiosidad y la ideología política fueron fuertes predictores de culpa y vergüenza en respuesta a descripciones de tiroteos en puestos de control. Estos efectos desaparecieron en el Estudio 3, lo que sugiere que la ideología política impulsa al DM en los conflictos intergrupales.Conclusiones: Los antecedentes y las características relacionadas con el EPDM afectan el desarrollo del daño moral. Adicionalmente, los experimentos de laboratorio demuestran el potencial y las limitaciones de los estudios de daño moral y facilitan una comprensión de la etiología del daño moral de una manera no disponible para los clínicos. Por último, los hallazgos y las metodologías experimentales ofrecen perspectivas adicionales en la génesis del daño moral y las vías para la terapia y la profilaxis.